Masters Spinners Archive Binders: In-Depth Study Binders

This thesis subjected fleeces from the same purebred Border Leicester female over a three year period to micron analysis. The purpose of the examination was to determine to what degree the fibres change at the microscopic level over Lime and also over the body of the sheep. The fleeces studied were intended Lo represent the sheep as a lamb, a yearling and a ewe (after lambing); time constraints for the course precluded waiting for a fleece representing an "old" sheep. The three fleeces were to be divided into five sections (neck, shoulder, side, back and britch) and each of these studied separately. However, the untimely demise of the study specimen in January, 1996, while pregnant, altered the final phase of the analysis. Only three samples of fibre were obtained; from the side, neck and shoulder, and of course the fleece had not undergone the stress of lambing which also might have bad an effect.

The main objective of this report is to explore how cashmere fibers are lost when blended with three grades of wool and how that affects the finished yarns. This research was done to see if it is worth the time, money and fiber to blend cashmere fiber with wool, and if so is a blend of 25% cashmere worth the work.

This study has been conducted to test the blends of different fibres for warmth, strength and hand. The fibres used were Merino wool, Pima cotton, Common Brushtailed possum fur and Rufus wallaby fur. Unexpected results were found in some cases after performing tests for warmth, strength, comfort and softness. For warmth, the highest blend of wool and possum was thought to be the warmest, but in fact the three ply blend of 50% wool and 50% wallaby proved to be the one that remained the warmest over all the others. For the strength test, the one with the greatest amount of wool was the strongest, however the possum blend was stronger than wallaby even though the wallaby fur has a longer staple than the possum. The hand test involved several people, so was subjective. Overall, the three ply 30% wool/70% wallaby was chosen over possum as the most comfortable and softest.

There is a common perception that the characteristics of coloured mohair fibre tends to show a definitive lower quality than white mohair fibre. My research project was aimed at examining the differences between coloured and white mohair fibre to see if there is any basis for the perception that their characteristics vary significantly.

This comparative study between single and two ply yarns in knitting open work was to determine differences in stability, drape, and handle. I have explored various knitting stitches as well as various finishing techniques on the single ply yarn. Subsequent to completing all the samples, I
was unable to detect sufficient differences in the single ply samples to recommend a certain finishing technique. The single ply has a lighter, airy hand whereas the two ply has a heavier, flatter drape. My final exploration was in three ply, which resulted in a bouncier drape than the two ply. I completed a shawl using the three ply yarn, and am very pleased with it.

This in-depth study examines wool variations through crossbreeding purebred sheep. The aim of the study is to determine if the desirable qualities of Bluefaced Leicester wool carries from a Bluefaced Leicester sire to its progeny. In addition to crossbreeding purebred sheep, a pair of crossbred sheep were bred together to determine what wool characteristics pass on to the next generation.

The object of this study is to research and examine the down-producing goat breeds developed in the geographical regions located in the former Soviet Union. The breeds included in this study are the Don, the Orenburg, the Altai Mountain, and the Uzbek Black. All of these breeds are double-coated with coats comprised of coarse guard hairs and fine, down fibers. Fiber samples from each breed were examined and presented in the following forms: unprocessed, with guard hairs and down components separated, yarn, and knitted fabric. The samples were evaluated for softness, elasticity, luster, bloom/halo, tendency to felt, and hand. A history of the development of each breed was given as well as a description of their physical characteristics and technical parameters of their fiber. Due to the smaller sample size of the fiber from the Altai Mountain and Uzbek Black breeds, further examination of fiber from a larger number of individuals is indicated. Moreover, a systematic comparison with North Americans breeds such as Pygora, Cashgora, and Pycazz is suggested.

The object of this study was to determine the effect of blending different types of wool and mohair with double-coated llama fiber. Additionally, I created blends identical to the double-coated llama blends with dehaired llama. Testers graded groups of yarns based on loft, prickle factor, elasticity, and coarseness/softness as well as on suitability in knitted and woven items. Yams were also graded as being warm or cool. The feedback showed no significant difference between the double-coated blends and the dehaired blends. The coarse guard hairs in the double-coated llama fiber add to the prickle factor but also provide for loft in the resulting yam. Fiber length and thickness contribute to prickle. Llama guard hairs have both of these qualities. The double-coated llama and wool blends showed uses for knitted outerwear but not for next-to-the skin garments. For woven items, the double-coated blends were better suited for weft rather than warp. Wool provides crimp for stretchy fabrics and good coverage in woven fabrics.
This study also compared identical mill-carded blends and drum-carded blends. Testers noted no significant difference between the two blends.

The exploration of cables in the spinning world has centered on construction. This paper aims to identify general rules for the number of twists per inch (TPI) in the singles and plies as they affect the completed yam. Various TPI and grists measured by wraps per inch (WPI) are used. Data on the TPI (see Appendix A) are examined for patterns that provide a guideline for creating cables. Natural white 80s Merino and 48s Romney roving are spun in a four-step fashion: 1) Twist A wise. 2) Ply B wise to balance. 3) Over ply B wise. 4) Ply A wise. The general ratio for ply twist needed to obtain a yam without active twist is ply TPI = number of plies/number of plies+ one; i.e., 2/3 of ply twist for a 2 ply yam or 3/4 for a 3 ply yam (Ross, 1983, p. 53). The amount of over twist to add depends on the yam design; the higher the over twist, the denser the yam. Only the over twist is considered when calculating the TPI for Step 3 as Step 2 results in a yarn having no active twist. The yam is assessed to see if it looks like a cable (see Figure 1). The best cable appearance results from four singles spun with a slight to moderate TPI in groups of two (see Appendix A for averages in this study). These two plies are then plied together. Twist direction can either be Z-S-S over ply-Z or S-Z-Z over ply-S. In the last cabling step, the TPI can increase significantly if the initial singles TPI is high for that fiber. Cables can be made with many TPI choices. Combinations other than two/two produce yarn that is useful, but does not always have the cable look.

This in-depth study will explore mohair and mohair/wool blends for use in warp. The wools used in this study are Merino representing fine wool, Corriedale representing medium wool, and Lincoln representing coarse wool. Adult mohair and adult wool was used, and graded by an Olds College graduate and fellow fiber enthusiast.
Also included in this study is the history of Angora goats, the characteristics and classification of mohair, and a brief history of Merino, Corriedale, and Lincoln sheep as well as their fiber characteristics.

The objective of this study was to demonstrate that Romney fiber is adaptable to many techniques and uses. Fibers were treated using a variety of methods to prepare (cutting short fibers, from rolags, sliver, and puni), spin (woolen, worsted), ply (2, 3; 4 plies), and finish (hot washing and rinsing, simmering, and fulling) sample skeins. Several pieces of equipment (cards, combs, hackle, and drop spindles) were used to create the sample skeins. The resulting skeins demonstrated a variety of twists per inch (TPls) (average= 3.55; range= 2 - 6), wraps per inch (WPls) (average= 14.52; range=6-22), and Bradford counts (average=S.21s; range=ls-10.6s), indicating a versatile fiber. These results were supplemented with a customer survey, again showing Romney fiber was used for a wide variety of purposes (outerwear, next to skin garments, art, and home goods) by customers purchasing fleeces. In conclusion, Romney was demonstrated to be both versatile and adaptable, and it would be interesting to duplicate this study using fiber from other breeds and compare the results.

This paper explores the history of the bison, and its historical use and evolution into today's uses. Bison were nearly wiped out by man, recovered from near extinction, and continue to increase in numbers as managed by man, their previous predators. The usage of bison hides or robes, hides with the coat left on, in the United States was limited due to the fineness of the fiber, the need for it to be dehaired and lack of knowledge of how to tan the hides. Europe did have the dehairing process, had developed a way to tan the hides and were able to use many robes and hides in producing fine fabrics for coats and sweaters. Today we do have the equipment, therefore fibers from the robes are being used more, both by commercial enterprises and by hand spinners. In this paper I have explored the different fibers of the bison and blended them with like fibers using previously published micron counts as a guide.

The purpose of this project is two fold.
1) To become better acquainted with some of the breeds of Merinos; their weaknesses and their strengths.
2) While Merino fleece is well known for the fine lace weight yarn needed for shawls and other lace items, it can be spun into yarn with a heavier grist. This makes it a good, all around yarn that can be made into more casual clothing.

Qiviut is an expensive luxury fibre that is treasured by many handspinners. This In-Depth Project examines the characteristics of qiviut, and attempts to improve and extend the possibilities for using qiviut in handspun garments. This is done through a combination blending qiviut with other fibres and subsequently dyeing it, as well as bleaching qiviut to improve the colour palette available when blending and dyeing the fibre.
It was found that qiviut can be blended and the positive qualities of qiviut can be preserved in the blended yarn. In addition, bleaching qiviut can be successfully done at home. Furthermore, blending natural and bleached qiviut increases the colour palettes available and allows for a broader range for designing.

The purpose of this in-depth study is to study the spinning characteristics of the Scottish Highland fiber using the downy and guard hair from cows we raised. In addition, this study will explore the history of the breed and the reasons for spinning their fibers or blending their fibers with other animal fibers. This study will include combing the Highland hair and washing and separating the hair from the down fibers. This study will explore the preparations of other raw fibers either by combing or carding alone, as well as setting the yarn. The study will present samples of woven and knitted swatches and of the yarn and fiber. Highland Cattle were the first domesticated cow and hopefully this study will spark someone with a hobby farm to invest in the Scottish Highland and serve as a knowledge base for working with the fiber.

"Even though the Navajo-Churro breed still exists, it is considered a rare breed. Perhaps no other sheep population in the history of the world has survived such selective pressure with such dignity and spirit" (azdailysun.com, 2006, p.1). The Navajo Churro sheep were the first breed of domesticated sheep in the New World (Oklahoma State University, 2017). Almost brought to the edge of extinction in the last century, the Churro sheep, since the early 1980s, have been making a comeback (ascailysun.com, 2006). This study will provide a plethora of samples demonstrating the possibilities for the Navajo Churro fiber. A brief synopsis of some of the people, events, places, and art dedicated to the Navajo Churro sheep are highlighted to show the importance of this breed. "Navajo Churro sheep have some outstanding traits that need to be preserved" (Navajo Sheep Project, 2008, p.1). Although a subjective topic, this study is intended to show that it was and is important to save the Navajo Churro sheep.

Not all breeds are suitable for a saddle blanket. This study compares different breeds as to their suitability for a blanket. The breeds studied were the Navajo Churro, Lincoln, North Country Cheviot, Border Leicester, Corriedale, Lincoln cross, Mixed Breed and Southdown. There were two different Corriedale samples in order to evaluate differences within a breed. In addition, the Corriedale was assessed at a 2 and 4 ply.
All the raw fibre was prepared in the same manner as one would expect to purchase as a roving from a commercial mill. Samples of each fleece was sent off to determine its micron count and staple length, which was instrumental in determining the breeds suitability. Based on these parameters and the samples in this study, it appears the combination of staple length of> 100 mm and micron count >30u provide the more suitable wools for a woven saddle blanket.

This study will determine if donkey hair can be used as a fiber to make viable yarn for textiles. Mediterranean and wooly miniature donkey hair were used in this study. The Mediterranean miniature donkey has short and wiry hair while the wooly miniature donkey has long and silky hair. This research looks deeper into the anatomy of the donkey hair which includes the micron count to determine the diameter of the hair.
Donkey hair was blended with five different protein fibers used in the master spinning program plus blends with cotton and faux cashmere. Each of these fibers was blended with the donkey hair using percentages of 75/25, 50/50, and 25/75. A control of 100% donkey hair from each breed was also spun for direct comparison with the blends. It was found that the wooly miniature donkey hair can make a viable yarn that would feel good next to skin. Unlike the Mediterranean miniature donkey blends which can be spun into yarn, but would be too itchy when placed directly on skin.

This is an in depth study of alpaca fiber. It begins with a brief look at the history of alpacas and facts about the animal. The nature and properties of alpaca fiber are explored in some detail and includes research on its elasticity and ability to nap. Methods of washing raw fleece and fiber preparations are discussed in detail. Spinning alpaca for beginners as well as for advanced spinners are covered. Exercises in grist and twist explore spinning possibilities and the point at which over twisting causes harshness in alpaca yams. Dye tests were made on acid, fiber reactive and natural dyes to explore its dye properties. Sun and light tests were exercised on the dyed yams. An extensive sampling of blends was undertaken and comments made on sample results. A brief discussion on care and uses of alpaca concludes this study of alpaca fiber.

Some negative characteristics of llama fibre may not be constant in every llama fibre used by the hand spinner. Some negative characteristics may be due to the selection of fibre, the cleaning of the fibre, the preparation of the fibre for spinning, the skill of the spinner or maybe a combination the aforementioned items. Part of the problem stems from the current lack of standardization in the fibre choices. Compared to alpacas and other fibre producers, llamas only recently became a popular fibre source for hand spinners. The natural characteristics of slippery fibres or fibres which lack elasticity may call on the spinner to blend the llama fibre with fibres with more tooth (that ability of a fibre to grip or cling to other fibres) or in the case of inelasticity, to blend the llama fibres with fibres containing crimp. Overall, many of the negative characteristics may be managed with experience in spinning many different fibres.

Alpacas provide an ecologically friendly fibre that requires less processing and are kinder to farmlands than many fibre producing animals. The fibre from alpacas is extremely versatile and their manure can be added to gardens without aging or composting before use. Consumers are more knowledgeable than ever before, and demand for environmentally conscious products are increasing exponentially. The choice of fibres available to spinners has significantly improved in recent years, and our need to consider the best methods for spinning these fibres has also increased.
This study explored many different spinning preparations, methods, and a few finishes for alpaca fibre. It is intended to assist in determining the best spinning and preparation method for an alpaca fibre, based on quality, length, and proposed final product for an alpaca fleece.

Suri alpacas are the lesser known cousins ofhuacaya alpacas. Their fiber has the reputation of
being difficult to spin due to the long staple length and the slippery nature of the fibers. This
study reviewed the characteristics of the fiber and how they affect preparation and spin
techniques. Taking into consideration the fiber grade, staple length. and lock style, fiber
selection is key to planning an appropriate yarn and end product. The author compared the qualities
of luster, soft hand, and drape in knitted and woven swatches within grades of fiber, types of
preparation, spin techniques, and finishing methods. The swatches knit from the finer grades of
fiber exhibited the most luster, soft hand, and drape. Preparations such as elongating locks,
combing, and drum carding emphasized these elements. Worsted spinning enhanced the qualities
ofluster and drape more than spinning from the fold and woolen techniques. Woolen preparation and
woolen spun yarn produced a very soft, lofty yarn. It is important to finish the skeins under
tension on a niddy noddy to avoid bubbling. Successfully hand spinning suri fiber requires careful
fiber selection and preparation to create a beautiful, soft lustrous yam that creates a lovely,
drapey garment.

This in-depth study explores the warmth, durability and economics as well as background information about spinning dog hair into yam. Included in the study is historical as well as present-day information on spinning, and knitting with dog hair. Also the use of 'chiengora' is explored and defined. The development of dogs and the various breeds' development over time are studied. Specifically the fur and the colour of the dogs' hair will be studied and compared with sheep wool. Fibres of five dog breeds (Samoyed, Rough Collie, Husky, Pyrenees and Timberwolf/Husky) were collected, sorted, washed and carded. Then the dog hair was blended with varying percentages of merino fibre for spinning. The yarn was knit into a square sample for each blend and used to conduct a warmth test and a durability test.

Access to domestic dog fibers is common in modern society yet they are conspicuously absent from anthropological history for use in handspinning and commercial yarn production with few exceptions. There are a few craft books available on spinning dog fibers, but they lack scientific data on the characteristics of the fibers. The lack of this information throughout history indicates that using or wearing dog fibers is culturally undesirable regardless of the quality, availability or affordability of the fibers. This study aims to understand why using dog fibers may not have been considered as a main-stream spinning fiber and objectively evaluate the fiber in a small section of various dog breeds in order to provide suggested cleaning, preparation and spinning techniques for dog fibers and possible end uses for hand spinners. By objective, scientific testing of the fibers and comparing the results to alpaca fiber and Merino wool data, this study proves that the qualities of the fibers are comparable if not higher in quality than readily available, highly desirable hand spinning fibers.

Approximately 94.28 million cats are residing as pets in the United States (Association, 2017-2018). Another 8.8 million pet cats are living in Canada (Association C. V., 2017). Many more millions are treasured as pets worldwide. I found it ironic when gathering this information, many of the ads on the website pages were for vacuum cleaners. Whole industries are devoted to home cleanliness and much has been written about how to remove pet fur from furniture, flooring, bedding, carpeting and clothing. Pet fur is normally something that would be discarded. I want to show that it can become an asset. Fur can be recycled into a useable fiber that can be transformed into something useful as well as decreasing the amount found in the home, thus lessening the amount of housework required to clean it up. This will also help to alleviate the risk of allergic reactions, saving the lives of many cats who are euthanized due to owner's health concerns. It is also healthier for the animal to have a coat that is well groomed and not matted.

This study examines the potential of eight luxury fibers when blended with angora for use as luxury knitting yarn. It considers nine sample yarns with accompanying knitted swatches and it offers analysis of each. The samples form three distinct subgroups that I call the Long and Lush Group, the Soft and Sound Group, and the Exotic Group. I didn't set out to study angora blends within subcategories; rather, I simply chose fibers commonly sought for their luxury qualities such as smoothness, softness, and luster. The natural result of the varying staple lengths of these luxury fibers is that the resulting yarn shared characteristics with those of like staple length. The Long and Lush Group was too inelastic for traditional knitting yarn and I recommend it for further study as weaving yarn. The Soft and Sound Group yarns have ready application to retail yarn and fiber shops. These often service novice spinners and knitters who want the tactile experience of working with luxury fibers, but still need more immediate gratification to stay motivated. The Exotic Group yarns have qualities that will keep the fine spinner/knitter busy for a long time and are worth the added practice and improved technique required to achieve them. Each blend makes a definite contribution to the creation of luxury fabric.

This study examines the suitability of four commonly available protein fibres for lace knitting. By blending and spinning Merino wool, Bluefaced Leicester wool, huacaya alpaca fibre, and Bombyx silk at 100 per cent, 75 per cent, 50 per cent, and 25 per cent in pairs, I created 22 yarns with different characteristics imparted by each fibre. These yarns were then knit into swatches, which were evaluated for ease of knitting, hand, drape, stitch definition, size and weight. This produced a final score for each yarn.
Silk and silk-blend yarns generally rated higher using this evaluation scheme. Fibres with inherent lustre and drape also rated higher when blended with silk. Merino, which is used a great deal for lace knitting, rated lower.

The purpose of this lndepth Study was to research the viability of beaver underfur as a handspinner's fiber for making yarn. It was a comparative study into the characteristics of the actual beaver fur and how they related to other fibers as a blend with various exotic fine short fibers. Also, this project evaluated the features and strengths of the fine beaver underfur as an undiluted yarn. Spinning was always the main focus of this endeavour, however much was learned while obtaining and preparing the fiber source.
I had anticipated obstacles in locating beaver fur but I could never have imagined the incredible journey it took me on to source the raw material and collect information I learned about the fiber. Many experts taught me how to judge beaver pelts for primness and quality, with this knowledge I purchased pelts with the longest beaver underfur for this task.
This project showed me that beaver underfur is a challenge to remove from the pelt and to dehair the guard hairs from the underfur in a cost effective and efficient manner. Those are challenges that can be overcome with a bit of ingenuity in the future, meantime for this study it was not possible to try all methods such as chemicals or locate specific factory equipment that could remove the fur from the hide at skin level. So my studies focused on methods that I could realistically try such as shearing, clipping and cutting off the fibers by hand using razor blades.
The shortness, fineness and slickness of the beaver underfur made it a challenging fiber to spin. However, as with any fiber it just takes practice and a few special techniques to make this fur spin well. For even yarn a well-made consistently sized puni is the first step in producing a good beaver fur yarn. Beaver fur fibers are very fine and tend to compact they should be held very lightly during drafting. The twist within the hand carded puni contributions to the formation of the yarn at the drafting zone and into the newly made yarn.
The spinning wheel was set with a very light tension on the drive and brake band. A very light hand and take up were all that was needed to make these fine fibers to spin well. Using the supported long draw method was the only technique that worked well for all of the samples. Finishing or setting the twist in all the samples was done by fulling or felting them in the skeins. This proved to be the perfect solution to stabilizing the yarns which resulted in soft downy and stable yarn.

Scarcity alone is not enough to demand higher prices for luxury protein fiber since protein fiber animals can be bred and some animal numbers have become prolific ( e.g. alpacas). The luxury protein fiber arena has long made claims about the warmth capacities of the luxury fibers versus the standard wool.
However, thermal claims are frequently inconsistent for a given luxury fiber; furthermore, accurately measuring thermal capacity is a complicated process. Factors such a hollowness and crimp of a fiber come into play, as does weight of the fiber. Liquid absorption is also factor. Fiber preparation and finishing further complicate judging thermal capacity.
The textile industry, in an attempt to measure thermal capacity, has devised mathematical formulas, sectioned off the human body for surface area to be more precise in measuring heat, and developed thermal manikins and heat loss models all in an attempt to gauge warmth. So, too, has textile industry devised units of measure to determine the ability of insulation to keep a person warm: Clo (United States) and Tog (Europe). But, because the average person does not understand industry thermal standards, misunderstanding and just plain misinformation are widely prevalent.
This study focuses on standardized fiber preparation of luxury protein fibers and standardized testing of those same fibers, both dry and wet, to determine warmth in relation to one another when variables are held at a minimum.

This is a study on spinning yams from combed, plucked or sheared angora fibers from English and Giant Angora rabbits in order to minimize the shedding of fibers in the finished item. This research has shown that to make a quality angora yam and a finished item with minimal shedding it is best to use long sheared angora fibers from the Giant Angora rabbit or plucked angora fibers from the English Angora rabbit.
This is also a study on giving the handspun yams different amounts of twist per inch in order to minimize the shedding of fibers in the finished item. The more twist an angora yam is given, the less shedding there is in the finished item, but too much twist of the yam results in less fuzziness or less furriness.
A comparison of combed, plucked or sheared angora fibers from the same English Angora rabbit has also been carried out. This comparison has shown that when spinning fibers from the same English Angora rabbit, it is best to use plucked fibers instead of sheared fibers. The plucked English angora fibers when spun into a yam shed very little or hardly at all. The sheared English angora fibers when spun into a yam shed quite a lot. All the different kinds of angora fibers were also carded with Merino wool top and spun into yams using a 50 % angora/ 50 % wool blend.
Blending the angora fibers with Merino wool top, did very little or nothing at all in changing the shedding factor of the handspun angora/wool yams, when comparing them with the handspun 100 % angora yams.

It is obvious that reeled silk is more lustrous than noil but the attempt to present scientific results inspired this study. The samples of Bombyx, Tussah, Eri and Muga silks spun for this study were chosen because they are easily accessible to the handspinner. Two machines were used to test the results in this study. One was an illuminance meter often used by photographers to measure reflective light for successful photographs. The second machine was a commercial gloss meter which is an instrument used to measure specular reflection gloss of a surface.
In my testing most of the samples proved my theory that less twist created more luster. There were two exceptions. The Bombyx hankies and the Tussah noil did not follow the trend. Several factors can effect luster in silk. Excess temperature and sericin not
completely removed will make the yarns less shiny. The Bombyx hankies were from my processing the cocoons and may have been over heated or not had all the sericin removed. With the noil, the sparkle of the tighter twist may have played a factor that came from spinning fibers that were placed in many directions. The noil was carded into pun is in order to be spun therefore having ends sticking out everywhere reflecting light. All other samples tested indicated that less twist creates more luster. The variance in twist did not have to be great to make a difference in the luster of the yarn.

Silk is a highly prized and sought after fiber. It is extremely strong, soft, warm, and lustrous. These are the exact qualities that drive the market and causes silk to fetch such high prices. A feasibility study of growing your own silk at home was done to explore the cost and time involved as a means to reduce the price of silk; therefore, making silk more affordable and accessible to every hand spinner willing to venture down the silken rabbit-hole road. The study also accesses the viability of home processed silk as opposed to commercial processing operations as an additional weight factor for growing it yourself for a better quality fiber. Our findings were amazingly positives ones but the amount of work involved and time spent did not outweigh the cost, in my opinion, that could be saved by growing your own silk at home. The study was subject to individual income variables between person to person that played a significant role in the mind of each individual willing to spend money over effort and time. Therefore, each individual could argue our results based on work ethic and time versus income.

The object of this study was to prepare, spin, test, and compare the characteristics of cultivated Bombyx and wild Muga, Red Eri, Tasar, Tussah, and White Eri silks in various forms. The specimens included silk yarn prepared and spun from slivers, cocoons, mawata, rolags, punis, and waste forms. Testing included abrasion testing of woven samples and shrinkage testing of spun yarns. Color, luster, smoothness, hand, durability, shrinkage and desired finished appearance were compared for each yarn.
The main conclusion was that each form and species of silk had its own distinct characteristics. Some may have been similar, but each was different in color, luster, smoothness, hand, durability, shrinkage, and desired finished appearance. The end use determined the choice of silk form and species.
Questions and curiosity surrounding how the various silks would dye and the differences between silk fibres taken from the inside of the cocoon versus the outside could be recommendations for further study. The silk fibres taken from the outside and the inside of the cocoons are not as strong as the middle fibres (Rayner, 1903).

The following in depth research project pertains to the spinning of a variety of commercially available silk fibres such as Bombyx mori (cultivated) and tussah bricks, tussah rovings, Bombyx and tussah noils, mawata in the form of hankies and caps, and dyed short silk fibre clumps for the purpose of handweaving samples which can be used as a basis for further weaving projects.
For spinning a Louet S 90 spinning wheel and a light wooden drop spindle have been used and for weaving a Nilu Leclerc jack type 4-harness loom and a small wooden frame loom. The spun silk yarns have been washed and set before weaving them into samples which have been hemstitched while still on the loom. After removal from the loom fringes have been cut followed by washing, setting, pressing, and drying. Finally the spun yarn samples have been wound and the woven samples handsewn on acid-free mattboard. All pertinent data have been provided and each step has been carefully documented in an accompanying paper complemented by weaving data sheets, and a bibliography to trace supporting additional sources. A recommended reading list completes the supplied information.
Included in the paper are brief historical sections about the famous Silk Road, the development of spinning tools and reeling, and the development of looms and weaving techniques. The manner of execution is meant to stimulate spinning and weaving especially for beginners. Weaving with the created handspun silk yarns has produced excellent results as the samples easily show. Further details are to be found in the paper.
Further research may be expanded to spinning and weaving with different singles, colour experimentation, reeling cocoons, spinning fancy yarns and weaving with these, and finally using some of the samples as a basis for producing large pieces of fabric. More particular suggestions can be found in the conclusion.
Finally, the created project has become a valuable source of information and an excellent teaching tool.

The Study is intended to determine the most suitable cotton yam( s) to accentuate stitch definition in cabled hand knitting. The chosen yams are to be suitable to create a knitted sweater for a baby. Three different types of cotton preparations have been included in this study. Singles yams were spun from each cotton preparation in two different grists, one thin and one thicker. From these six singles both multi-plied yams and cabled yarns were plied together. Samples of cabled knitting were created from each yam and the knitted samples were judged using a written Opinion Survey. Thirty three participants participated in the Survey. The results of the Survey were analysed and presented in both Table and Graph form by Jen Janz, PhD8. A written explanation of the results was given by the writer. The yam chosen as best suited to create a cabled knit sweater for a baby, based on the results of the Survey, was a thin grist 4ply organic Peruvian cotton yarn. Instructions to reproduce the chosen yam(s) were given in the final reporting. This concluded the Study.

This study compares four groups of cotton yams used on a home knitting machine. Group I is two cotton warp yams and two similar semi-worsted handspun yarns. Group II is two soft commercial cotton knitting machine slub yarns and two similar handspun semiworsted cotton slub yarns. Group III is two handspun yarns each finished in a different way: one boiled for one hour with detergent and the other soaked for 10 minutes in warm water with detergent and fulled lightly. Group IV is two handspun cotton yarns: a 3-ply spun from commercial sliver and a 2-ply yarn spun from commercial punis. Two knitting machines were used: a Passap e-6000 and a Silver Reed LK-150. Samples were compared by counting the number of dropped stitches, numbers of broken threads, and ease of use. No significant differences were found. Questions such as comparative washability and fabric transparency are subjects for future studies.

This study's purpose is to determine whether dogbane, a bast fiber used by the native peoples of North America, is a viable option for the modern spinner. Dogbane can be wildharvested in most of North America, and ample anthropological and archeological evidence shows that native peoples of this continent used it for a wide variety of textile and medicinal purposes.
As flax and hemp are also bast fibers, this study makes a case for processing dogbane with similar methodology, and its results support the hypothesis. In like manner, dogbane readily responds to hackling and carding as one would for flax and hemp and allows for the gathering of tow dogbane fibers, a new source of fibers.
While most native groups finger spun or thigh spun dogbane, this study considers the modern application of spinning processed bast fibers on a wheel, which was found to be not only possible for dogbane tow and line but efficient. Wet spinning and plying seem to be the best option.
Both tow and line fibers spun as a 2-ply yarn lend themselves to all manner of textile application. Dogbane singles were problematic, and singles made from tow lacked the strength and durability required in weaving applications. Singles made from line dogbane fibers were stronger than singles of tow fibers but required sizing in order to withstand the abrasion and tension needed for weaving. Twist direction in spinning dogbane was found to have no effect on the finished yarn. It is hypothesized that end-use should determine twist direction, presenting a point for future study. While dogbane is usable in its unfinished state, scouring produces a softer, cleaner yarn. The dyeability of the fibers was not examined in this study and introduces a nice extension of this project.

Detailed explanation of hand processing of Hemp includes:
Cultivation
Retting
Braking
Scotching
Hackling
Spinning
Woven Fabric
A Dye Experiment
Paper

Cotton is considered difficult to spin by some modem spinners. Examining multiple aspects of cotton from its origins, through history, to the science and types of cotton has shown the many aspects and value of this fiber. Various preparations for spinning cotton were explored using ancient and current techniques as well as commercial preparations such as sliver and combed cotton from mills. These preparations and techniques demonstrate the ease of spinning cotton. Samples of raw cotton and handspun yams using the different preparations for spinning are included in this study.

My goal in this applied research project was to investigate Coast Salish spinning and find ways to recreate the types of yarn that have been used in the past as well as the present. This required a study of existing textiles in museum collections as well as modem textiles to look at yarn characteristics. Learning some traditional ways of preparing and spinning yarn and, finally, creating typical yams used in Coast Salish textiles. The project is broken into three main sections: 1. Research into the spinning characteristics of Coast Salish textiles held in various museums. 2. Research into the tools, techniques and fibres used, and recorded in historical writings by explorers, early settlers and through oral history in addition to current practices. 3. Creating yarns that represent typical Coast Salish yarns.

While doing research for the Basic Level of the Master Weaver Program of the Canadian Weavers Guild, I became aware of the historical significance of the weaves being tested. Weavers have been using them in this country for about 300 years to produce essential clothing, bedding, linens and carpeting; and handspinners have prepared the fiber and spun the yarns the weavers required. Much of their work is admired today for the skill and expertise with which it was crafted.
My fascination with these productive pioneers resulted in my decision to try to create fabrics similar to those produced in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. The first step in my research was to locate photographs and written descriptions of the historical fabrics. But I realized that before I could duplicate these fabrics, I first had to understand the fibers. dyes and yarns that formed their basis. It was impossible to duplicate exactly the yarns of early spinners without being able to study actual samples of the yarns and their constituent fibers, and this placed a severe limitation on my study, but I was able to find some written descriptions on which to base my experimentation.
My research showed that fabric design was greatly influenced by the availability of spinning fibers, and early weavers used what would now be considered unconventional mixes of yarn, due mainly to the shortage or relative abundance of specific fibers. It was interesting to discover that wool did not become abundant until the mid-19th century. The fiber most readily available to early spinners was the domestically produced and processed flax, and linen yarns were often used to extend the small amounts of wool. Linen was later supplemented with cheap mill-spun cotton yarns when they became available from cotton mills in the U.S. and Canada. The wools that were available came primarily from four (4) breeds of sheep: the Southdown, Leicester, Lincoln and Scottish Blackface, and their crossbreeds.
Today spinners use mainly synthetic chemical dyes to colour their yarns, but before the mid-19th century, spinners had to use dyes from natural sources. Native dye sources were used to a limited extent, but usually dyes were purchased. I experimented with natural dyes to get an idea of what colours were available to early spinners, but I did not duplicate early dyeing procedures which have since been replaced by faster, safer, and more dependable chemicals and procedures. While natural dyes do not produce the bright, clear colours of synthetic dyes, they do produce a surprisingly extensive palette from which to design fabrics.
While most fiber preparation and spinning was done in the home by the distaff side of the family, it seems clear that most domestic weaving was of a fairly simple type, with more complex weaving being done by professional weavers who were, more often than not, male. In this study I have placed the emphasis on the domestic dyeing, preparation of the fibres, and spinning of yarns which would be suitable for fabrics woven in Canada over the last three centuries. I have woven samples to show the appropriateness of these yarns, but I have not tried to duplicate the wide variety of fabrics. I have instead chosen a few fabrics which I feel represent general categories of early weaving.
My study of pioneer spinning and weaving is far from complete. However, even within its limitations, I have greatly increased my understanding of the subject.

Estonia is a small country in the far northeastern part of Europe. One way Estonian culture has been preserved through years of repression is by the knitting of mittens and gloves and other items of importance. The design of Estonian mittens and gloves has reflected the mythology, folklore and symbolism characteristic of the Baltic-Finno-Ugric people.
Mittens are a necessary item of clothing for the Estonian people. A person would need several pairs of mittens to get through the long, cold winters. An individual would even sometimes wear one pair on top of another. Work mittens were made of thick, coarse yam and were fulled for increased strength and spun woollen for increased warmth. Finer mittens were knitted from softer fleece and thinner yam.
This project will focus on mittens. It is proposed to spin wool from four different sheep breeds (Gotland, Icelandic, Finnish Landrace, and Shetland) that will closely represent the sheep wool Estonian spinners/knitters might have used. The goal is then to determine which of the four fleeces chosen will create the most durable, most comfortable, warmest mitten for an average person's workload. Although the symbolic nature of mittens was crucial to the preservation of Estonian culture, it was also important from a practical standpoint to have a comfortable, warm and durable mitten.
A home built abrader was designed after the Martindale commercial abrader. A series of yams were spun woollen with a traditional long draw method from each sheep breed ranging from low twist to high twist. Each sample was then abrasion tested, and the results were collated graphically. From the results, it appears that the Finnish Landrace sheep has the most durable fiber for the project. High twist was most durable, but not as comfortable as the medium twist. Also, since most of the air was compressed out of the high twist yam it was not as warm as the medium twist yam.

The objective of this project is to produce a female Viking outfit. It will be the complete process, meaning that it starts with the sheep and ends with the finished outfit. The complete outfit includes: dress (with trim), belt, bratt, hat, socks and a bag. All processing was done by hand (unless noted otherwise).
Conclusion; this is a time-consuming, labor intensive process. If all clothing had to be made this way, we would most certainly appreciate and take better care of our clothing.

The purpose of this study was to examine spun fibres of the ancient peoples of Peru and determine how they were spun and how they could be replicated. I had access to a collection of ancient cloth from grave shrouds that was used for the study. First I identified weave structure and the structure of individual fibres in the textile collection, I then -identified the fibre content using a burn test. I identified 11 samples in all; ten of cotton and one of camelid fibre.
Questions arose about the type of spindle used in what area and this was found to be the drop spindle, still in use in modern day Peru, for fibre from camelids, and a slender supported or unsupported spindle, made from a thorn or wood, with a clay, ceramic, or metal whorl, that was used to spin cotton.
Through my research I found the answer to a number of questions:
• Who were the peoples and cultures in ancient Peru?
• Why are there so many textiles in museums and other collections?
• What fibres did ancient Peruvians use?
• What textiles did they make?
• What tools did they use?
• How were the yarns spun?
Then I replicated four of spun fibres, using a modern spinning wheel and other modern tools, then four additional replicas of the samples, using replicas of ancient tools. I also made a sample of woven fabric from my spun fibres, using a typical back-strap loom, which I constructed. I found out which tools work the best - replicas of ancient tools or modern spinning tools.
I concluded this study with a deep appreciation of the skill of these ancient peoples, particularly their yarn and cloth production.

This in-depth study will explore spinning thread for use in Ukrainian folk embroidery.
Included in this study will be historical information on spinning, weaving and dyeing in Ukraine, as well as information on the development of traditional embroidery stitches.
I will spin fibres that were available to prehistoric and historic spinners of Ukraine, namely, flax, wool, and silk. The threads will then be used to execute traditional embroidery stitches to determine suitability for use in Ukrainian folk embroidery.
Although my study of spinning for use in Ukrainian folk embroidery is far from complete, the knowledge garnered through this study will enable me to spin thread that will be suitable to embroider a rushnyk. This is an embroidered towel that is used for ceremonial purposes such as weddings, baptisms, funerals and religious holidays.
Through this study, my sincerest wish is to pay homage to the early spinners and embroiderers who developed this beautiful art form and passed it on to succeeding generations, and to in some small way assist in the preservation of traditional Ukrainian folk embroidery.

The object of this study is to investigate the feasibility of preparing and spinning indigenous nettle fibres, Urtica gracilis, into a practical yarn.

Cowichan sweaters are not only symbols of Canada (one need only look at the Winter Olympics held in Vancouver in 2010 for proof) but are closely related to West Coast living. They have been given as gifts to world leaders and heads of state for almost 100 years. Even kings and queens have worn them.
The genuine Cowichan sweater has not changed over the last century and remains more than just a warm, beautiful outer garment. Because the sweaters are knitted by women with very limited income, they require inexpensive fibre and old-fashioned preparation techniques. The following pages will explain how this is accomplished.

Little information can be found on how Guernsey yarns were created before they were mechanically processed at the Yorkshire mills in England. There was no specific breed of sheep used for this type of yarn; instead, many different breeds' fibers were processed to make Guernsey yarns. The Yorkshire mills carded the fibers before they were combed which makes their yarn process semi-worsted. The yarns created for this study were processed and spun true-worsted.
The origin of the gansey sweater remains uncertain. Gansey may have gotten their name during the 16th century when Queen Elizabeth set up knitting guilds on the Channel Islands to produce knitted stockings. The gansey may have also gotten its name from an undergarment (underwear), which was worn during the 17th century. But during the early 18th century, the gansey sweaters (as we know of them today), were created by mostly women using patterns that were not written down but passed on from one generation to the next. These sweaters were surrounded by myths that this researcher assumed were true before sadly discovering that they were indeed stories.
The purpose of this study was to find out what made the Guernsey yarns the choice for making the gansey sweater. Guernsey yarns, although typically thought of as a five ply do not have to be a five-ply, in fact, many were not. But they do need to be a compact, multi-plied yarn that when knitted create a dense fabric. The true-worsted yarns created by the researcher performed just as well as the commercially produced yarns during the water experiment. They both created densely knitted fabrics that when sprayed with water, did not leak through to the blotting papers beneath the knitted samples.

I chose to study chemical dyes in order to understand them, as well as to broaden my knowledge about color. I wanted to broaden the range of the handspun yarns that I was using for garments and household furnishings. I had many naturally colored fleece giving me a monochromatic palate ranging from white to black. Now that I have opened the door on a world of color, I have broadened my horizon to include an unlimited rainbow of colors . I am presenting information here that I hope will help and encourage a novice dyer, starting with some history and color theory. I then go on to describe the four classes of dyes chosen for this study, and include information about them which ls helpful when purchasing them. I explain what equipment ls needed when preparing to dye and give explicit instructions for each four classes of dyes. I explain the color wheel, secondary colors and hues containing all three primary colors. I include the dye formulas for the 98 samples which I have mounted in such a way that they can be easily compared. (See appendices.) The information in this study could be used by a novice dyer when he or she chooses what dyes to use, as well as helping with color choices.

This study compares hand carders, drum carder, hackles, mini combs and wool combs to blend 23 colours of merino commercial top from Ashford Handicrafts Ltd. into a homogenous blend. The factors that were considered were effectiveness (how well the fibres were blended by sight), efficiency (how much time it took to blend), and how much waste each tool produced.
It was interesting to see how well each blending tool did in effectiveness. The tools were equally effective, however, the five tools did differ in efficiency.
Since all five tools were equally effective to blend 480 grams of fibre, efficiency was the only way to determine the most efficient tool and least efficient tool for blending colored tweed. The most efficient tool was hand carders, taking 14 hours, 48 minutes to complete the task with 0.8 grams of waste. The least efficient tool was the mini combs taking 28 hours, 27 minutes due to the amount of fibre preparation required to complete the task with 177.225 grams of waste. In accordance with the criteria established, hand carders took the least amount of time as well as produced the least amount of waste.

The modem hand spinner often uses a variety of processing techniques and spinning techniques to create a wide variety of yarn structures for particular projects at hand. As dyeing is often an integral part of the yarn for many projects, this study aims to see if using fibre reactive dyes, deemed safe, easy to use and readily available to hand spinners working in a home studio, are absorbed differently by a variety of yarn structures. Methods include considerations for keeping consistency in washing and processing of the fibre, as well as consistency and accuracy in dyeing methods. Results show minor variations in colour which can be attributed to different structures as well as limitations of equipment available to the home dyer. These variations however, are minor enough that it should not affect the outcome of a project, regardless of the yam structure used.

Llamas are one of the South American members of the camelid family. Although historically better known for their use as pack animals (the ships of the Andes), they do produce a fibre that can rival that of their smaller relative -the alpaca.
Llama fibre comes in a wide range of natural colours ranging from white to black, with all shades of brown and grey in between. Llama can easily be dyed with both natural and chemical dyes ( suitable for protein fibres) to further expand the range of available colours.
This project was undertaken to explore the dyeing of llama fibres. While the dyeing was being done 5 specific areas of interest were explored.
(1) Will the time of dyeing ( as fibre, yarn or finished product) have an impact on the final result?
(2) Could the handle of the fibre affect the dyeing results?
(3) Can dehairing the fibre affect the end result of dyeing?
(4) How does blending with other protein fibres ( either by plying or carding) affect the dyeing?
(5) Compare the dyeing of llama and wool fibre?
Dyeing was undertaken to specifically look at each of the areas. The dyed materials are mounted in the accompanying.plates, followed by a discussion of what they signify.

Whether used to create a one of a kind garment or as an accent yarn, handspun designer yarns add design originality, texture and colour to hand woven or hand knit projects. The purpose of this study is to use texture and colour to design and produce handspun yarns in two ways. First by carding and combing fibres and second, by manipulating the fibers when spinning and plying. The study focuses on materials, the design process, analysis of designer yarns, and yarn characteristics as well as suggestions for end use.

The use of handspun yarns for upholstery has been a largely neglected field. There has been very little research done in this area to date. The most important result of the research found here was that the handspun not only performed well but proved to be superior in many ways. The results were very satisfactory and helped to eliminate any fears I had of using hands pun yarns for any purpose. This work shows that handspun yarns were and always will be a very valuable asset to not only the handweaver but to any other craftsperson who uses yarn.

The object of my study of 'Hand Spun Yarns For Crochet' was to find what method of spinning the selected fibres would make the best yarns to use for crocheting. I was trying to determine if one type of fibre was a better choice over another. By using different methods of spinning such as worsted or woolen, I was expanding on my choices to develop a good crochet yarn. Each fibre was spun both 'z' and 's' to give me visual samples of what was happening in the finished yarn.
The main conclusion that I came to from the study was that a yarn in which the singles were spun 's' and plied 'z' kept the plies together better than a yarn in which the singles were spun 'z' and then plied 's'. I also concluded that the yarn in which the singles were spun 'z' would become softer and duller when being crocheted, while the yarn with the singles spun 's' would become much firmer and show the lustre better.
I would recommend further study of 'Yarns for Crochet' by using singles yarn especially with the bast fibres of Flax, Hemp and Ramie. As these fibres are even stronger if wet spun, they would make a yarn with less bulk, in the finished crocheted fabric.
I would also recommend a further study by comparing all the different wools to see what the finished crocheted fabric would result in and where it would be most effectively used.

Objectives
1. To explore the use of three primary colors of Ciba Geigy leveling acid dyes, Erionyl Red 2 BL, Eriosin Blue RFF (Royal) and Erio Brilliant Yellow GLS, to make three intensities of a 25 hue trichromatic chart. Four natural shades of New Zealand Romney roving and three shades of Angora would be dyed in each dyepot to obtain a variety of shades of each hue.
2. To gain an understanding of the interaction of dyes and chemicals on wool and Angora.
3. To gain a greater awareness of the safety rules and to conscientiously follow them at all times.
4. To explore various books available to me relating to fibers, color and dyeing. I hoped to gain a broader knowledge of all aspects of dyeing.
5. To increase my understanding of the meaning of the terms used in color theory.
6. To increase my skills at using levelling acid dyes. Hopefully, at the completion of this research, I would be able to use these dyes knowledgeably, confidently, efficiently and with precision.
7. To prepare accurate records of calculations, measurements and procedures so that all colors could be reproduced accurately.
8. To prepare an accurate color guide for future references by using meticulous calculations and measurements and following strict dye procedures.
9. To mount all samples in such a way that they could be easily compared and used as a color resource for future projects.

Spinning to a specific tpi (twists per inch) can be done by following a formula involving the ratio of the wheel, the amount of treadling, and the length of the draft. Two popular spinning tools cannot use this formula: electric spinning wheels ( e-spinners) and spindles.
Tests showed that, with spindles, the use of a metronome to maintain a consistent beat for drafting provided a means for spinning consistent tpi. The use of a metronome combined with a tachometer provided a reliable method for spinning to a consistent tpi on e-spinners.
Traditional treadle wheels were then tested and the results compared to the tests performed on spindles and e-spinners, resulting in the determination that the most reliable tool for spinning to a specific tpi is not a traditional treadle wheel, but a modern e-spinner.

Spinning to a specific tpi (twists per inch) can be done by following a formula involving the ratio of the wheel, the amount of treadling, and the length of the draft. Two popular spinning tools cannot use this formula: electric spinning wheels ( e-spinners) and spindles.
Tests showed that, with spindles, the use of a metronome to maintain a consistent beat for drafting provided a means for spinning consistent tpi. The use of a metronome combined with a tachometer provided a reliable method for spinning to a consistent tpi on e-spinners.
Traditional treadle wheels were then tested and the results compared to the tests performed on spindles and e-spinners, resulting in the determination that the most reliable tool for spinning to a specific tpi is not a traditional treadle wheel, but a modern e-spinner.

In pursuing this paper it will be observed how woad can be grown today and color obtained by dyeing with the woad using controlled methods of variance in temperatures, recipes, mordants, etc., on hadspun yarns of differing fibers.

Ply structure is one consideration a hand spinner has to decide upon when setting out to spin for a project. Fibre type is also a relevant factor. Both fibre type and ply structure vary greatly, giving the hand spinner multiple options to choose from for their intended project. Not all projects require next to skin soft wools, in fact if you chose one of those wools for a rug it would wear out incredibly quickly. And if you chose coarse wool for a toque, that toque would linger at the bottom of the bin for eternity. Not all stitch types are suited to fibre type, and not all ply structures of those fibre types are suited to those stitches. There is a point at which the fibre type and ply structure collide to create the perfect fabric that will make your project sing.
When combining fibre type with ply structure to determine the suitability, the options are many, but the outcome can be predicted. Each ply structure has a final texture, however the prevalence of that texture relies on crimp and fibre elasticity. This means there is an intersection of ply and fibre type that creates ideal fabric for a variety of projects.
This study leaves out a myriad of other fibres, and leaves me to wonder what influence the ply structures have on them. Are all silks created equal? What about mohair or luxury fibres? What role does twist in each ply structure have in the final stitch outcome as well?

Twist turns fiber into yarn. Twisted fibers store potential energy which gives the yarn a tendency to untwist. Plying two or more yarns together with an opposite twist relaxes the fibers and releases the potential energy. A balanced yarn has the spin and ply twist equalized so the yarn has no tendency to twist. There is a relationship between the amount of ply twist and the amount of spin twist in each ply in a yarn. The widely accepted formula for this relationship is P = n/ (n+ 1) S, where P = ply twists per inch, S = spin twists per inch, and n = number of plies. For a two

In preparing for a project one must know how the required yarn needs to look and how it handles or feels. Is the yarn soft enough, strong enough or elastic enough for the job These characteristics of the yarn are just some aspects needing consideration before beginning to spin. I have spun four samples of each fleece, each with a different amount of twist and grist to demonstrate these yarns. I have documented the spinning details and included samples that follow the discussion on this study.
The spinner must have control over the amount of fibre being drafted in order to be successful in spinning consistent yarns. Consistency will prevent knitted or woven fabric from weakening in thick or thin spots. I drew conclusions from the information I gathered and decided which yarn was most like the fleece. I mentioned my findings on other aspects of the yarns created.
If the spinner changes the spinning method to the opposite one used for the study and spins other fleeces as they become available, the new yarns become an extension of this research. The acquisition of more information through the addition of fleeces, will save time and effort and will increase the study's worth.
I feel this in-depth study will serve me well for my future projects by giving me choices that I have already explored.

In her guide to rare and luxury fibres, Judith MacKenzie quotes naturalist John Muir's observation, "Everyone needs beauty as well as bread" (2015, p. 7). Spinners often satisfy these sometimes conflicting goals by blending luxury fibres with less expensive ones. This in-depth study assesses the benefits, savings and costs of this practice when the added goal is to achieve improved stitch definition.
The study looked at five luxury fibres - angora, bison, camel, cashmere and yak. Each was blended alternatively with cotton, Merino and silk to produce 20 sample skeins and knitted swatches, including control skeins and swatches of the luxury fibres unblended. Effects on stitch definition, handle and lustre were measured through a survey of experienced knitters and spinners; elasticity was measured and calculated; and an online survey of retailers quantified potential cost savings.
The study found that while estimated cost savings are as high as 42%, and while blending fibres can yield sought-after benefits, the characteristics of luxury fibres are often diminished by blending. The spinner's challenge is to weigh the benefits against the costs and to consider alternatives to blending, such as using luxury yarns as accents.
To reduce variables, the luxury fibres and blends were spun within a narrow range of twists per inch, and all blends were at proportions of 50 per cent. Further studies could identify optimal twist and blending proportions for each luxury fibre.

The objective of this study was to replicate the upholstery fabric in our 1972 Frontier camper. The reason I chose to do this was to maintain the authenticity of our camper, while replacing the ageing upholstery fabric.
In this study I tried to determine the contents of the original fibres, and then I tested an assortment of fibres and blends, to establish a best fit for the project. Once I had determined which fibres were most appropriate or best suited for the project, I proceeded with the replication.
My early thoughts and assumptions were quickly dismissed as testing proved some to be inconclusive and others to be just wrong. The early research I did allowed for a smoother process and in the end I finished up with a beautiful replicated fabric with a far superior feel and quality than the original fabric.
I applied spinning to test an assortment of fibres in order to get the best hand for the fabric, dyeing to ensure colour accuracy and weaving to replicate the fabric.

Tatting is a lace making technique using a shuttle and fine thread usually commercial mercerized cotton or silk. Fine yarn suitable for tatting can be handspun. Spinning opens up a variety of fibre options for tatting. Other fibres such as wool, ramie, alpaca, lyocell, soy silk and linen are not typically used to make tatted lace. All aforementioned fibres are tested in this study. This investigation also studies the correlation between tatted ring and medallion size and twist per inch (TPI). Each fibre is spun at six, eight and 10 TPI. For each yarn the same medallion is tatted. Eight ring and four medallion diameters are measured and compared using Analysis of Variance and Tukey' s tests to determine significant differences between fibres and within the preset twist levels.
Findings reveal that all fibres tested are suitable for tatting; however, differ in their appropriate end use. Further, the ring and medallion size is dependent on both fibre type and TPI. There are correlations within fibre groups. Not only does the TPI and fibre affect the external ring diameter but they also impact the joins between rings. This is reflected for some fibres in differences in the medallion diameter for different twists.
This study shows that a variety of handspun yarns are appropriate for tatted lace. Twist per inch impacts ring and medallion size differently for different fibres. This affects the size of the final product. Sampling therefore, is critical to ensure a desired outcome if changing fibres for commercial patterns.

This in-depth study explores the idea of using hand spun silk as the stitching thread in Blackwork embroidery.
I will spin various silks, including Bombyx, Tussah, Muga and Eri, to test their compatibility for use in this form of embroidery. A sample is stitched for each one to demonstrate its use and 1 usefulness.
Included is historical information on the probable origins of Blackwork embroidery and its development to this day, along with a basic 'how to' primer for the stitching process.
Finally, a substantial motif is stitched which demonstrates not only the compatibility, but the beauty of using hand spun silk in Blackwork embroidery.

.

ODE TO MY SOCKS
Mara Mori brought me
a pair of socks
which she knitted herself
with her sheepherder's hands,
two socks as soft as rabbits.
I slipped my feet into them
as though into two cases
knitted with threads of twilight and goatskin.

Violent socks,
my feet were two fish made of wool,
two long sharks
sea blue, shot through by one golden thread,
two immense blackbirds, two cannons, my feet were honored in this way
by these heavenly socks.

They were so handsome for the first time
my feet seemed to me unacceptable
like two decrepit firemen,
firemen unworthy of that woven fire,
of those glowing socks.

Nevertheless, I resisted the sharp temptation
to save them somewhere as schoolboys
keep fireflies,
as learned men collect
sacred texts,
I resisted the mad impulse to put them
in a golden cage and each day give them
birdseed and pieces of pink melon.

Like explorers in the jungle
who hand over the very rare green deer
to the spit and eat it with remorse
I stretched out my feet and pulled on
the magnificent socks and then my shoes.

The moral of my ode is this:
beauty is twice beauty,
and what is good is doubly good
when it is a matter of two socks
made of wool in the winter.
-Pablo Neruda (Translated by Robert Bly)

I have spun line flax, cultivated and tussah silk and wool and silk into very fine threads. I then applied them to bobbin lace projects that follow in this book.
I have since found that this has helped me to understand the above fibres and how they are applied to Bobbin Lace.
I would encourage the reader to try and spin their own yarns, so they can reproduce threads for Bobbin Lace that are not manufactured at this time. Bobbin Lace is less expensive. A spinner does not need great lengths of thread, generally, for Bobbin Lace projects.

The purpose of this study is to investigate various methods of preparing fibres for worsted spinning and the effects of those methods on the final yam. This study aims primarily to be informative -to provide a comprehensive examination of the cost of spinning a true worsted yam and the impact on the outcome so that a spinner may make an informed decision as to a cost-benefit analysis of the additional time, resource, and labour requirements.
This study applies a comparative lens to four factors of worsted preparation: consistent lock length, maintaining the lock direction of tips and cut ends, planking, and reversing the singles before plying. For each fibre, each of these factors has been systematically eliminated to determine what, if any, impact that factor has on the end product. The result is a total of five tests per fibre: one without consistent lock length, one without maintaining lock direction, one without planking, one without reversing the singles, and one where all of these measures are applied in keeping with a true worsted.
Nine animal fibres were included representing a cross-section of different sheeps' fleece as well as alpaca and llama to determine if the differences are amplified or reduced in different fibres.
Forty-five samples later, I concluded that the four factors analyzed make very little difference. Maintaining lock direction seems to make the most significant impact on the final yam-however, the difference, while present, is fairly minimal.
There are a number of areas for further study, most notably a similar undertaking that examines the effect of factors other than the four included in this study, such as the use of different tools and equipment.

Novelty yarns requiring special manipulation during plying were spun using only high-whorl spindles. The four novelty yarns included knot, snarl, spiral and boucle. The literature review showed there was no standard method for spinning any of these yarns using a spinning wheel. Authors used different amounts of twist and directions of twist for spinning each of the component singles yarns (core, wrapper, binder) and for plying the component yarns together. As many different techniques as possible were used and compared in the spinning of twelve knot, snarl, spiral and boucle yams.
It was possible to spin all the singles and ply the four types of yarn using only highwhorl spindles; however, it took more time to ply them compared to plying them with a spinning wheel or compared to plying regular plied yarns with a high-whorl spindle. Boucie yarns took the most time to ply. Different ways of manipulating the singles were explored an an attempt to make the plying process more efficient. The more frequent the knots, snarls or loops, the more time was required to ply the yarns.
There were advantages and disadvantages to spinning each type of yarn using different plying directions for the component single yarns. SZS yarns had the advantage over ZZS yarns because SZS yarns did not Jose their core twist during plying to the point of disintegration the way that ZZS yarns did.

This study observes effects of blending two different staple lengths of the same breed and evaluates how much differential can exist before the performance of the yarn or fabric is degraded. The goal is to understand if a hand-spinner might evaluate a proposed blend from the perspective of length only. The knowledge gained will be useful in making fiber choices for an economical, artistic and technically sound project.
The method uses three sheep breeds, manipulating each sample by leaving 50% of the blend unchanged and reducing 50% of the blend by cutting the staple progressively by 20% increments for each test.

Determining the differences, if any, in methods of fiber selection, cleaning processes, effectiveness, and efficiency of pre-spin methods, and a comparison of the resultant yarn and knit fabric using a raw sheep fleece typically found on many local farms, are conducted in this study.
The fiber was selected at random from Suffolk-Dorset sheep fleece. The fiber varied widely in crimp formation and length of staple. The fleece was skirted; eliminating dung covered fiber, stained fiber and fiber heavily embedded with debris. The fiber was selected from the fleece using two techniques. Two cleaning procedures were em ployed on the two fiber selections. Each of these selections was in turn prepared for spinning using four methods. Each method sample was then spun and knit.
Weight and times of execution were recorded for each sample, averaged and compared.
The fiber was selected from the fleece in locks and in "handfuls". Each of these was scoured and washed. In turn, the scoured and washed samples were prepared for spinning using the following techniques: flick carding, combing, hand carding, and hand teasing. Finally, these four technique samples were spun in a worsted manner and knit in stockinette stitch using the same size knitting needles.

Historically core-spun yarns were created to enable adding materials such as metals as decoration to textiles. In the textile industry they are created to take advantage of different fibre characteristics to meet a specific yarn end-use. Today in hand-spinning they are created for primarily aesthetic reasons.
This study examined a selection of non-wool fibres – mohair, silk, cashmere, cotton and unbleached flax tow – used as the wrapping yarn of hand-spun core-spun yarns to determine if a stable yarn can be created. Within the parameters of this study, a stable yarn is defined as a yarn that has maintained its yarn structure stability, and has a surface integrity at least as good as a core-spun wool yarn spun by hand and low fibre fragment content after typical use in hand- weaving and hand-knitting. Skeins of core-spun yarn were created using four different core- spinning techniques with each non-wool fibre. Tests were performed before and after creating the hand-woven and hand-knitted samples to determine how well the stability of the yarn structure and the yarn surface integrity were maintained and to determine the amount of fibre fragments that were generated after use. Stable core-spun yarns included: cashmere yarns with a smooth or textured core, with a binder or not; mohair yarns with a smooth or textured core with a binder; bombyx silk yarns with a smooth core, with a binder or not; and cotton yarns with a smooth core and a binder. Unsuitable core-spun yarns included: mohair yarns with no binder; bombyx silk yarns with a textured core; cotton yarns with no binder or yarns that use a textured core; and flax
yarns with either core with or without a binder.

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Creative art yarn spinning produces very individual and unique yarns that when used in traditional applications offers new perspectives on old techniques. This study examines the textural and structural attributes of knitted and woven cloth using hand spun art yarns and focuses on specific types of yam construction techniques to provide a knit and woven sample and compare the differences and similarities as well as offering end use applications. I created fifteen hand spun yarns with specific yarn construction techniques, and then knit and wove a sample swatch from each yarn. Each sample set was evaluated using a set of qualitative and quantitative parameters. The results showed that knitting with the various yarns produced greater texture over weaving, that knitting uses more yarn while weaving the yarn makes a denser cloth and finally the thicker the yarn the greater texture in the final product.
Study options beyond the scope of this paper could include using one specific type of fibre for each of the yarns or using a multitude of fibres but maintaining only one type of spinning technique. Another option may be to add another sample construction technique for manipulating the yarn, such as crocheting.

The purpose of this study is to see how versatile the Black Welsh Mountain Sheep fiber is for the handspinner. This study tests to see if this fiber is better suited to a specific preparation, spinning method, and/or end product. The preparations tested were hand carding (rolags, slivers), flick carding, and combing. The spinning methods were worsted (short forward draw) and woollen (point of contact). The yarns were tested to see if they worked better for knitting and/or crocheting. The yarns were then knitted and crocheted into swatches. Theses swatches were then tested for felt ability, durability, stitch definition, how soft or coarse, and what end product best suits this fiber.
The main conclusion is this is a very versatile fiber. This fiber is very well suited for hand carding, flick carding, and combing. The spinning methods of worsted and woollen both work well with this fiber; woollen however may work slightly better than worsted due mostly to the short length of the staple.
This fiber worked equally well for both Knitting and crocheting, with little difference between the two.

The swatches felted very little, the woollen spun swatches felted better but the worsted spun swatches hardly felted at all. The more plies did seem to make the swatches a little more durable. There was some shedding with the woollen spun swatches shedding the most. The worsted spinning seemed to tuck the kemp fibers in to the yarn making the yarn less coarse and smoother. The woollen spinning seemed to leave the kemp fibers sticking out making the yarn more coarse and prickly. The stitch definition was hard to tell because of the intense black color but, I found mostly to be good, with the combed preparation being the best. The end product would better suit outer wear, blankets, and house hold textiles than next to skin wear due to the coarseness of this fiber.

The purpose of this in-depth study is to examine different ply structures for their suitability and durability when used in rug hooking yarns made into floor coverings. The suitability of six wool yarns, six wool/mohair yarns, and six wool/silk yarns with the following ply structures: singles, two ply, three ply, chain ply, three ply crepe, and four ply cable were evaluated by hooking rug samples. A second set of samples were subjected to abrasion to evaluate wear resistance.

The outcome of testing indicates that the wool/mohair blend survived abrasion with the least amount of pilling; the wool/silk yarns suffered the most. The ply structures that performed best in the wool yarns was the singles and four ply cable. The ply structure that performed best after abrasion of the wool/mohair yarns was the singles and two ply yarn; the ply structure that performed best under abrasion for the wool/silk yarns was the singles and three ply crepe. Ease of hooking was consistently found with the two ply yarns, the three ply crepe yarns, and the four ply cable yarns, regardless of fibre content. The hook did not catch on individual plies in any of these constructions. After all testing was completed, the best yarns for rug hooking are: wool or wool/mohair two ply, three ply crepe, or four ply cable yarns.

The purpose of this study is to blend flax with different fibers to discover whether the blends result in a fabric with better resistance to wrinkling, recovery from creasing, and a softer, more fluid drape than pure linen fabric. The fibers chosen were four types of wool, two types of alpaca, young mohair, Bombyx silk, nylon and Tencel (Lyocell). Two blends of each fiber, 25% and 50% of the blending fiber, were spun and woven, and compared to a control sample of 100% linen fabric. The samples were evaluated for bending resistance, crease recovery, and drape, using procedures based on three commercial tests, and the area density of each fabric was measured. In addition, the samples were evaluated subjectively for hand. It was found that the best crease resistance and recovery, and the best drape, came from 50% blends of young mohair and Southdown, and the best hand from 50% blends of superfine Merino and Tencel. Differences were found in measurements of the warpwise and weftwise direction. Further study could be made using different percentages of blending fibers as well as other fibers, varying the twist amount and direction, comparing linen blends to fabrics from a single fiber, different sett in weaving, and increased numbers of washing of both yarn and fabric. Additionally, wrinkling could be evaluated using a visual test, and the drape test should be repeated with a larger sample size.

Twist is at the heart of the spinning process and the strength of a yarn is a significant design characteristic considered by a hand spinner. This study compares how strength and twist in 2-ply yarns interact and looks for the possibility to develop a strength index. Five sheep breed fibres were spun true worsted and true woollen to create yarns at three twist intensity levels, samples were destructively tested, and the weight required to break the yarn was recorded. The amount of twist, the strength and common statistics such as wraps per inch, grist, stretch, objective data on hand and end use was also gathered. Usually higher twist yarns are stronger than lower twist yarns. When copious twist is added to a single thread, causing deformation in the form of curlicues, permanent damage is done to the constituent fibre, creating weakness in the yarn. When low twist singles are plied the loss of twist can be sufficient to undermine the integrity of the 2-ply yarn, which disintegrates. The length of a fibre correlates with the strength of a yarn, the longer the stronger. The knitted fabric created from high twist yarns is elastic although the yarn itself is not. The sample size of the study was small; it is suggested that more fleeces are tested, both from the same sheep breeds but different flocks, and from similar breeds in the same wool classifications. Expansion of this database can confirm the observed trends and further develop the concept of a strength index.

The purpose of this study was to visually determine whether washing a raw fleece in harsh detergents would significantly shorten the lifespan of the finished object. Three grades of fleece, fine, medium and coarse, were all washed in separate baths, one plain water or suint fermentation which contains no product, and the next three had commercial detergents ranging from a gentle made for raw fleece wash product to dish soap to laundry detergent. All products are commonly used for washing fleece and are readily available. As the fleeces were processed and spun identically as possible it was assumed that any differences in the amount of combing waste and durability would be damage done to the fibres by the different detergents.
The study found that yarn produced from wash damaged fibres can be spun into a useful yarn if care is taken to use a wool friendly product to wash the finished garment each time it is cleaned.

The nature of tatting creates stress on the threads while being worked. Commercial threads rely on complicated processes to create a more usable thread; however, can finishing techniques improve cotton handspun? There are many factors that can influence how a desired thread will perform in tatting, such as fiber, texture, twist, as well as personal tatting techniques. This study will examine how finishing techniques can affect the suitability and appearance of cotton handspun. Skeins of Acala and Pima cotton were spun and finished in five different ways: washed, boiled, sized, treated with an alkaline solution, and treated with an alkaline solution under tension. Each skein was tatted three times: by a beginner with little tension control, by an experienced tatter with consistent tension control, and by an experienced tatter deliberately placing extra stress and friction on the thread. These samples were evaluated by the tatter while they were being created and then evaluated by volunteers after blocking.
The tatters found that the threads that had been blocked during the finishing process were the easiest to work with, as they were the stiffest. While the finished appearance of the samples was more similar than anticipated, the samples that had been treated in the alkaline solution were identified as the most attractive.
Further study might include questions about blocking. As the tatters found the blocked threads to be more suitable, repeating the study to include blocked threads would be of further interest. Another curious idea would be to find how much change in a finished piece could be achieved through the use of blocking.